This data release provides data for the single site in the United States (U.S.) that has public record of germanium (Ge) production. Germanium, which is currently classified as a critical mineral in the U.S., is also extracted as a byproduct from deposits in Alaska, Washington, and Tennessee. However, there is no public information that documents germanium production from these deposits.
Current annual production of refined germanium is led by China at 85,000 tons, while estimates place U.S. reserves near 2,500 tons. Reported production of germanium in the U.S. is limited to one site, the Apex mine in Washington county, Utah. The Apex mine produced gallium (Ga) and germanium as primary products during the mid-1980s. Since its closure, germanium recovery has been restricted to refining processes of ore concentrates and recycling of waste scrap both in and outside the U.S. (U.S. Geological Survey, 2020).
As a part of the process set forth by Executive Order 13817, the USGS National Minerals Information Center (NMIC) identified germanium as a critical mineral (Department of the Interior, 2018) due to the import reliance and importance in the sectors of defense, manufacturing, and telecommunications (Fortier and others, 2018). Germanium is used for strategic, consumer, and commercial applications due to its high refractive index, transparency to infrared light, and properties as a semiconductor. Most notably, germanium is a major component in infrared devices, fiber optic cables, and PET plastics (Melcher and Buchholz, 2014). As of 2019, the U.S. maintains greater than 50% reliance on imported germanium from countries such as Belgium and China who were the main U.S. suppliers between 2015–2018. Germanium is imported to the U.S. as germanium metal and dioxide for consumption (U.S. Geological Survey, 2020). Some germanium is recovered from recycling of scrap during the manufacturing process, such as the manufacture of fiber-optic cables (Mercer, 2015).
The element germanium largely occurs as a geochemical substitute in various sulfide minerals, primarily in the mineral sphalerite (ZnS), with minor inclusion in silicate minerals. The greatest germanium concentrations occur in Kipushi-type deposits, principally in oxidation zones of sulfide ore (Höll and others, 2007). The largest past producers of germanium from Kipushi-type deposits occurred in Kipushi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Tsumeb, Namibia. These deposits host 60 million tonnes (t) at 100–200 parts per million (ppm) Ge and 28 million t at 50–150 ppm Ge, respectively. Currently, germanium is produced as a byproduct of zinc-bearing ore deposits. Acid mine drainage may have elevated signatures of germanium because of germanium’s strong association to sulfide minerals (Shanks and others, 2017). Germanium is also recovered from lignite and coal deposits worldwide (Melcher and Buchholz, 2014).
The entries and descriptions in the database were derived from published papers, reports, data, and internet documents representing a variety of sources, including geologic and exploration studies described in State, Federal, and industry reports. Production and resource information extracted from older sources might not be compliant with current rules and guidelines in minerals industry standards such as National Instrument 43-101 (NI 43-101). The presence of a germanium mineral deposit in this database is not meant to imply that the deposit is currently economic. Inclusion of material in the database is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. The authors welcome additional published information in order to continually update and refine this dataset.
Department of the Interior, 2018, Final list of critical minerals 2018: Federal Register Notice 83 FR 23295, no. 97, p. 23295–23296,
https://www.federalregister.gov/d/2018-10667.
Fortier, S.M., Nassar, N.T., Lederer, G.W., Brainard, J., Gambogi, J., and McCullough, E.A., 2018, Draft critical mineral list—Summary of methodology and background information—U.S. Geological Survey technical input document in response to Secretarial Order No. 3359: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2018-1021, 15 p.,
https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20181021.
Höll, R., Kling, M., and Schroll, E., 2007, Metallogenesis of germanium—A review: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 30, p. 145–180,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2005.07.034.
Melcher, F. and Buchholz, P., 2014, Germanium, chap. 8 of Gunn, G., eds., Critical metals handbook: Chichester, UK, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., p. 177–203,
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118755341.
Mercer, C.N., 2015, Germanium—Giving microelectronics an efficiency boost: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2015–3011, 2 p.,
https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20153011.
Shanks, W.C.P., III, Kimball, B.E., Tolcin, A.C., and Guberman, D.E., 2017, Germanium and indium, chap. I of Schulz, K.J., DeYoung, J.H., Jr., Seal, R.R., II, and Bradley, D.C., eds., Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, p. I1–I27,
https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802I.
U.S. Geological Survey, 2020, Mineral commodity summaries 2020: U.S. Geological Survey, 200 p.,
https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2020.
The Esri ArcGIS 10.7.1 geodatabase contains 1 point and 2 polygon feature classes, 8 attribute tables, and 15 relationship classes. Relationship classes link tables using the Ftr_ID or Site_ID fields. Feature classes are also provided as Esri shapefiles; attribute tables are provided as Excel and comma-separated values (CSV) files. The description of each database layer (feature class) and attribute table is provided below, followed by general information about concepts and terms used in the development of the database. Metadata is provided in extensible markup language (XML), hypertext markup language (HTML), and text-formatted (TXT) formats.
DATABASE LAYERS AND TABLES
The Loc_Pt feature class contains point locations of mineral regions, mineral occurrences (deposits), and mine features, and the attribute information describing the location, source report, scale of the map used to obtain the location, and if the location has a polygonal footprint in the Loc_Poly feature class. In the database, all features have point locations, except for surface workings.
The Loc_Poly feature class contains footprints or polygons of areas, deposits, and mining districts. If a source report shows a location as a polygon, the polygon is digitized, and the approximate centroid of the polygon is added to the Loc_Pt layer. Attribute information about the location is provided in the Loc_Pt layer. Mines are represented as points in the database, even when footprints are presented in source reports. Where possible, the approximate extent of the mining operation area, determined from imagery, is presented in the surface workings (Loc_Poly_Sw) layer.
The Loc_Poly_Sw feature class contains the approximate area of mining-related activity, or “surface workings” as shown on Esri imagery. These polygonal outlines have no corresponding point location in the database, nor do they have links to other tables. The attribute information for surface workings contains the date of the imagery and basic location information including state and county names. Surface workings must be at least 1,000 feet (ft) (300 meters(m)) in one dimension to be digitized, and multiple workings that are 500 ft (150 m) or less apart are combined into one outline. No attempt is made to distinguish between the types of surface workings (for example, roads, pits, leach pads, waste piles, etc.), even when presented in source reports. No surface workings were delineated in this data release.
The Site table is used to identify related features, such as a deposit and the mine(s) operating on it, or a mine and its related deposits. Each site has a unique identification value in the Site_ID field. A Site_ID is also assigned to mineral regions, such as mining districts, which are represented as a single polygon or point feature in the database. The Site_ID is used in all tables except the References table. The Site table also indicates where information about a site occurs within the database. For example, if the Resources field in the Site table contains the value “Yes”, resource information is available in the Resources table.
The GeolMinOcc table contains information about the geology of mineral deposits and prospects. Every attempt was made to compile information as reported in the source report. For example, if one source report states the valuable material as “azurite”, and another reports "galena and goethite", the attribute field Value_Mat will contain all values. The value in the Ref_ID field is the primary source report for the record, for example, Bernstein (1986). All information in the record comes from the primary source report unless an attribute field value contains a number in parentheses. This number denotes another source report whose Ref_ID is given in the Remarks field. Full citations for source reports are provided in the References table and adhere to USGS citation style.
The Resources table contains reported resource data for mineral deposits. Data are compiled for the most recent mineral resource when available. Resource values were recorded as shown in source reports, including year reported, resource amount, units, and classification system(s). The definition of terms (for example, inferred, proven, probable, etc.) used in various resource classification systems may change through time. Resources extracted from older sources might not be compliant with current rules and guidelines in minerals industry standards such as NI 43-101 or the Joint Ore Reserves Committee Code (JORC Code). The way the resource is reported dictates the number of records for each deposit. For example, if data from a single deposit are reported for an inferred resource and a proven reserve, data from both classifications will be reported as separate records, unless it is stated that the proven reserve is inclusive of the inferred resource. If resource data are reported for a group of features rather than an individual deposit, the Ftr_ID will show “-1111” and the resource is assigned to the “site” or Site_ID that groups those deposits on the Site table. The contained SI commodity amount (CntSIComAm) for the contained SI commodity (CntSICom) has been provided in one consistent unit (metric tons) for the user which is typically calculated by USGS authors. A value ending with “111” as a decimal trailer indicates the value was calculated by USGS authors. For example, if a value in the Grade field is calculated by USGS authors to be 0.05 percent, then the value recorded in the database will be 0.05111. Conversion factors used by the USGS authors can be found on the USGS_Germanium_Merged_Excels file under the Conversions tab. Where a range in values is provided for attribute fields such as Mat_Amnt (Material Amount), Grade, Contained, etc., the average of the range is reported within the field and the range of values is noted within the Remarks field. For consistency, resource values are converted to the International System of Units (SI units) by the USGS authors. Inclusion of material in the database is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.
The Production table contains published production data for mines. Production is listed by commodity and reported as shown in the source reports. Reported production values are totaled by the USGS authors for the time period defined by the Year_From and Year_To fields. If production is reported for a group of features, the Ftr_ID will show “-1111” and the production is assigned to the “site” or Site_ID that groups those mines on the Site table. The contained SI commodity amount (CntSIComAm) for the contained SI commodity (CntSICom) has been provided in one consistent unit (metric tons) for the user which is typically calculated by USGS authors. A value ending with “111” as a decimal trailer indicates the value was calculated by USGS authors. For example, if a grade is calculated by USGS authors to be 0.05 percent, the value recorded in the database will be 0.05111. Conversion factors used by USGS authors can be found on the USGS_Germanium_Merged_Excels file under the Conversions tab. Where a range in values are provided for attribute fields such as Mat_Amnt, Grade, Contained, etc., the average of the range is reported within the field and the range of values are noted within the Remarks field. For consistency, production values are converted to the SI units by the USGS authors.
The History table contains information derived from publicly available sources regarding the status of a mineral region, mineral occurrence, or mine feature through time. Values in the Status field indicate a condition or phase for the time period stated in the Year_From and Year_To fields. This information may not reflect the current status of a feature. For example, if the attribute record shows the status of a mine is “Active” and the Year_From and Year_To dates are 1985 and 1986 respectively, the mine was active from 1985 to1986; it is unknown if the mine is still active. The Last_Updt field shows the date that the record was last updated by the authors.
The Dep_Model table contains mineral deposit model and geoenvironmental model classifications for a deposit included in the database.
The Descr_Sum table contains relevant descriptions found in source reports. These descriptions are attributed according to the type of description, such as Geology, History, Production, Resources, etc. Descriptions pertain to individual features or to larger sites. The authors do not paraphrase nor combine descriptions, and therefore, when a database feature is described in multiple reports, the feature will have multiple entries.
The References table contains the citation of the map or report(s) from which the point, polygon, or attribute information was obtained. The table also assigns a short reference, Ref_ID that is used throughout the database.
GENERAL INFORMATION
Mineral regions are attributed as areas, or mining districts. Areas have similar geology and deposit types. Mining districts represent historic administrative areas organized by miners under the mining laws of the United States. Mining districts are typically an area containing a group of mines that exploited the same or related commodity. Mining district polygons may overlap.
Mine features are man-made features associated with the process of extracting, processing, or concentrating ore materials. In this database, mine features have a point location, and where possible, the polygon boundary showing the extent of surface workings identified from imagery. No attempt is made to distinguish specific mine features like pits, dumps, tailings, etc. within the surface workings outline.
Mineral occurrences, defined as a concentration of a mineral considered potentially valuable, can be deposits, prospects, or showings in USGS mineral deposit databases (USMIN), however, in the germanium database mineral occurrences are only deposits. Mineral deposits have a defined size and may have a grade indicated by current and (or) past production, and (or) a resource estimate.
The locations of mineral regions, mine features, and mineral occurrences are commonly represented as points in source maps and reports, and occasionally as footprints (polygon outlines). In this database, all features have a point location, and some have an additional polygonal footprint. Surface workings in the Loc_Poly_Sw feature class are the exception—they do not have a corresponding point location or attribute information in the Loc_Pt feature class. Otherwise, for points that have polygonal boundaries, the Loc_Pt feature class attribute field Loc_Poly contains the value “Yes” and the boundary definition is described in the field Poly_Def field. For example, “Approximate extent of the mining district from imported GIS layer.”
Each point and polygon feature is uniquely identified by a Ftr_ID. The Site_ID is used to indicate groups of related features, or “sites”. Tables are linked (related) using the Ftr_ID or the Site_ID fields. Some tables have more than one record describing a feature. For example, a point denoting a mine location may have many records in the Production table summarizing the dates and amounts of material produced. The database is designed to allow the user to navigate from the point or polygon layers to the linked table information or from the tables to the point and polygon layers.
All database information is derived from publicly available sources. The Last_Updt field shows the date that the record information was last updated by the USGS authors. Full citations are listed in the References table, and each citation is assigned a short citation, Ref_ID that is used for identification in the database. With the exception of the Loc_Poly feature class the primary reference(s) is typically noted in the Ref_ID field. Additional references are enumerated after attribute field values, and the corresponding short reference is in the Remarks field. For example, the Commodity field shows “arsenic (1); copper; gallium; germanium; iron (1); lead (1); silver (1); zinc (1)” . This indicates the commodities “copper, gallium, and germanium” were derived from the primary reference denoted in the Ref_ID field as “Krahulec (2018)” and “arsenic, iron, lead, silver, and zinc” were derived from a secondary reference denoted in the Remarks field as “(1) Bernstein (1986)”.
There is no relevance to the order of data presented in lists. For example, if the Commodity field shows “copper; gallium; germanium”, that is the order in which those commodities were compiled by the authors and does not represent the order of importance. Additionally, in the GeolMinOcc table, lists in different fields do not relate. For example, if the Commodity field shows “copper; gallium; germanium”, the Value_Mat field may list related ore minerals in a different order. Similarly, the data in lists are alphabetized to prevent duplication of values as authors compile the dataset. Listed fields are present in the Site, Loc_Pt, and GeolMinOcc tables.
Field or attribute records that contain "Null" values in the file geodatabase, were checked for available data, and no data were found. In some cases, an entire field may contain no information. These "Null" fields are maintained in the database structure for consistency with related USGS products and for possible future use if information becomes available.
Two points may occupy the same location. This occurs when there is a deposit with a mine, and the location of either the mine or the deposit is unknown. For example, a report provides a map showing the location of a deposit. The report also provides production data for underground “Mine X” that is mining the deposit but does not provide the location of “Mine X”. In this case, a second point representing “Mine X” is placed at the point location of the deposit.
Polygon features may overlap. Viewing polygons as outlines without color fills will show where polygon overlap occurs.
In the attribute section of this metadata, attribute fields from all feature classes and tables are listed in alphabetic order; corresponding feature classes and tables are listed in parentheses after the field name in the Attribute Label. For example, “Mat_Amnt (Production, Resources)” indicates the attribute field Mat_Amnt occurs in the Production table and in the Resources table.
